This revealing account brings together eleven leading specialists from the fields of linguistics, anthropology, philosophy and psychology, to explore the fascinating relationship between language, culture, and social interaction. 1990. 176 Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin requests for confirmation or repair initiations (Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks 1977). INDEX Aarsleff, H., 51, 233 Abu-Lughod, L., 193, 204, 218219 accessive, 29, 36 accommodation, 155, 179 linguistic accommodation, 151, 187 cognitive accommodation, 178 acculturation, 9, 144 aesthetics, 55, 111, 220, 222, 2267 verbal aesthetics 208, 218 African-Americans, 172, 173, 174175, 217 agency, 33, 39, 40, 92, 139, 144, 149, 155 human agency, 10, 63, 135, 140, 155 linguistic agency, 22, 137 agent, 2223, 2425, 31, 45, 219, 220, 225 social agent 4, 147, 196, 201, 202, 205206, 254 spirit agent 4043 Alleyne, M., 140, 143 alternating sounds, 54, 58 Amerindian languages (see also Hopi language), 4765, 70, 71, 7476, 89, 91 analogy, 215, 218, 220, 221, 228 analogical change, 237, 238, 244, 248 analysis, analytic, 31, 3435, 67, 188, 207208, 214224, 226; see also synthesis anthropology, 12, 8, 12, 13, 47, 8284, 85, 88, 90, 9195, 115, 129, 135, 153, 154, 158, 190, 204 anthropology and poetics, 207228 cognitive anthropology, 2, 78, 75, 96114 (socio-)cultural anthropology, 1, 54, 68, 90, 109, 153 evolutionary anthropology, 109, 113114 linguistic anthropology, 2, 37, 9, 10, 35, 80, 84, 97, 156, 192193, 200, 252 physical anthropology, 90 psychological anthropology, 97, 105, 109, 113 symbolic anthropology, 68 Arends, J., 137, 140142 arbitrariness, 116, 127, 215 Aristotle, 36, 48 Arrente (Arrernte, Aranda), 12, 13, 4546, 128130, 134, 190192, 196199 assimilation, 162 Auer, P., 160, 164 Austin, J., 11, 200 Baker, P. and Corne, C., 137, 139 Bastian, A., 53 Bate, B., 225, 207 Benedict, R., 55, 59, 91 Berinmo, 117 Berlin, B. and Kay, P., 8, 7071, 99, 117120, 125, 128, 133, 221 Bhagavad Gita, 212, 216, 224, 225 Bickerton, D., 136, 139, 152153 bilingualism, 4, 9, 1011, 14, 79, 84, 156, 184188, 216 bilingualism in the workplace, 163 bilingual families, 163, 186187 bioprogram, 138, 139, 152153 Black, M., 72 Bloch, M., 9394, 101, 112 Bloomfield, L., 83, 86, 87 Boas, F., 12, 67, 4748, 53, 5562, 65, 67, 6970, 71, 78, 79, 80, 83, 86, 8990, 9293, 96, 104 body, 13, 39, 41, 45, 52, 80, 102, 108109, 175, 190, 191, 192, 203 body language, 2728, 2931, 33, 34 Bopp, F., 232, 234 Bourdieu, P., 140, 254 boundary, linguistic, 157, 159, 164, 165, 170, 254255 buffered self, 38, 41, 4446 301 302 Index calibration, 72, 87 Caribbean, 142, 143, 187, 226 Caribbean creole languages, 138, 140, 152 Cassirer, E., 34, 68 categories color categories, 115, 116, 120124, 131, 221 grammatical categories, 48, 6064, 65, 7678, 80, 82, 84, 92, 103, 105107, 126, 195, 250 perceptual categories, 8, 36, 115, 117 semantic categories, 36, 110, 126127, 154, 194 Caton, S., 218219 change cultural change, 89, 140, 154 language change, 4, 5, 6, 1415, 50, 88, 151, 152, 229238 Chaudenson, R., 137, 139 children as conversational partners, 172175, 177, 185186 child as addressee 171175, 187 child as speaker 175179, 187, 189 child language acquisition, 5, 1112, 17, 52, 59, 97, 101, 103, 104, 106107, 110111, 149, 168188, 205 cultural factors, 169, 170 bilingual, 184188 child language socialization, 5, 1113, 15, 92, 101, 163, 168185, 187188, 196 children, language input to, 168 simplified speech (motherese, baby talk) 11, 171, 173175, 179, 187, 188 expansion 175179 prompting 179, 181182, 183184, 187 ventriloquating 179, 187 Chomsky, N., 5, 127, 153, 215, 252, 255 code, 12, 2728, 156, 159, 161, 164, 187188, 203, 204 code choice, 184187 code mixing, 184185 codeswitching, 4, 1011, 159161, 163164, 188 cognition, 6, 7, 77, 79, 9699, 136, 152, 159 cognitive anthropology: see anthropology, cognitive cognitive linguistics, 9798, 100, 101, 112 cognitive schema, 93, 100101 cognitive science, 13, 7071, 74, 8283, 9698, 99, 102103, 104, 108, 112 Whorf and 9195, 107 Coleman, S., 217, 219, 220 collaboration, 145, 151, 166 colonial(ism), 120, 136, 147, 154, 196, 197, 198199, 211, 225, 226 color color naming, 115134 color perception, 3536, 38, 116, 125 color properties, 8, 120121, 124 perceptual color space, 118, 126, 127, 129 color terminology, 71, 99100, 115133 basic color terms, 8, 69, 7072, 115, 117119, 121122, 123, 125127, 128129, 131 focal colors, 71, 117118, 132 communication, 8, 12, 21, 22, 72, 105, 136, 145, 148, 150151, 153, 155, 170, 171, 199, 253 ethnography of communication, see ethnography communicative ecology, 173 community, 8, 63, 85, 141, 144, 156, 161163, 165167, 168188, 201, 210, 215, 245, 252, 254 see also speech community competence, 166, 185 cultural competence, 11, 169, 180 grammatical (or linguistic) competence, 4, 8, 15, 168169, 170, 171, 173, 175, 180 Condillac, E., 4, 1618, 23, 26, 28 Conklin, H., 99, 115, 120122, 124, 221 connectionism, 100, 102103, 113 connotations, 122 constitutive rules, 101102 constitutive theory of language, 4, 8, 16, 23, 2527, 2829, 30, 31, 3334, 3536 contact cultural contact, 910, 135, 136137, 150, 154 language contact, 911, 154, 161, 163, 186, 233 context, 53, 65, 76, 80, 99, 103, 104105, 112, 123, 127, 137, 147148, 169, 171, 173, 175, 184, 194195, 196, 197, 198199, 200, 201, 202, 204206, 211, 217, 219, 223, 226, 227, 229, 246, 253, 255 cultural context, 84, 94, 96, 146, 182, 187, 188, 192 phonological context, 237, 243, 244245, 253 Index social context, 136, 143, 145, 154, 168, 182, 187, 188, 225, 247, 251, 254 context-dependence, 7, 11, 77, 96 context doctrine (or thesis), 3133 contextualization, 113, 164165, 188, 216, 217, 219 conversation, 8, 32, 36, 80, 105, 164, 194, 195197, 199, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218 conversation analysis, 156, 159, 160 Corne, C., 137, 139, 148 corporeal, 45, 193, 195196, 197198, 201202, 203205 corporeal sensations, 13, 203 corporeal hexis, 196, 199 Crago, M., 177 creativity, 6, 9, 90, 92, 150, 227 creole, 1, 10, 119, 135155, 197 creole continuum, 138 creolization, 4, 9, 135, 136, 140, 152 cultural creolization, 2, 9, 148 Crowley, T., 137, 138 cultural alienation, 10, 155 cultural models, 7, 100103, 142 cultural studies, 1, 74, 217 cultural translation, 154 DAndrade, R., 97, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 113 Darnell, R., 2, 7, 64, 8295 Davidson, D., 16, 7273 decontextualization, 4 deictic, deixis, 36, 74, 80, 181, 215 social deixis 196, 201 demography, 137, 140, 143, 148, 152, 158, 162, 254 denotation, 128129, 192, 195, 196, 200, 204, 205 color denotation 8, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 129131, 132 desire, 3, 13, 23, 2526, 39, 45, 182, 191193, 199, 200, 203205 determinism, 48, 237 linguistic determinism, 47, 63, 64, 65, 68, 72, 78 development, child language, 13, 101, 168188 developmental psychology, 97, 104, 107, 112 dialect, 47, 67, 75, 135, 138, 146, 152, 158, 231, 237, 255 Romance dialects, 239, 241242, 250 dialect leveling, 151152 303 dialectic(al), 194, 200, 208, 230 Dickinson, E., 215, 223, 226 Diez, F., 239241, 242 diglossia, 157, 161162 discourse, 48, 146, 147, 158159, 160, 164, 166, 173, 175, 196, 198, 204205, 213, 214, 215, 218 discourse analysis, 100 metapragmatic discourse, 194197 diversity, 71, 83, 9293, 105, 158, 205 cultural diversity, 89 human diversity, 1 linguistic diversity, 4748, 4950, 5152, 113, 150, 162 pidgin and creole diversity, 138 domain (of language use), 157, 161162, 163165 domination, 120, 194, 199, 205; see also symbolic domination Duranti, A., 97, 102 ecology, 99, 166, 227 communicative ecology 173 cultural ecology of grammar 187, 188 linguistic ecology 162 Einstein, A., 6, 48, 57, 6667, 7879, 8687 Emergence Hypothesis (EH), 118, 125127, 134 emotion, 3, 14, 23, 2627, 28, 31, 34, 3637, 4345, 75, 97, 99, 102, 146, 170, 193, 204205, 208, 214, 220, 224, 225226, 241 empowerment, 149, 150, 155, 218 enchanted world, 3845 endangered languages, 90, 162 enframing theory, 1617, 26, 27, 29, 30, 3132 English, 12, 14, 27, 30, 3738, 56, 5961, 62, 71, 7273, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 106107, 109, 112, 115, 116117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123128, 129, 133, 140, 186187, 194197, 202, 216, 223228, 231 Liberian English 152 Hawaiian Creole English 152 Old English 231, 249 enlanguagement, 135 entailment, 11, 12, 200, 202, 203 entextualization, 12, 198, 201 esoterogeny, 254 essentialism, 5, 6, 4748, 49, 50, 52, 5556, 57, 68, 6970, 78, 81 ethnicity, 10, 11, 156, 207, 208, 225 304 Index ethnobiology, 99 ethnographic semantics, 98 ethnographic poetry, 208209, 210 ethnography, 7576, 9394, 112, 163, 169, 184, 188, 246 ethnography of speaking (communication), 75, 94, 137 new ethnography, 7, 98100 ethnolinguistics, 2, 35, 13, 69, 8283, 95, 156, 161, 165 ethnopoem, 220 ethnopoetics, 89, 15, 75, 77, 207228 ethnoscience, 1, 2, 7, 75, 98100, 101, 102, 103, 113, 221222, 223 ethnosemantics, 2, 75, 99 etymology, 6, 14, 208, 216217, 229256 evolutionism, 6, 5355, 5759, 7172 existential dimension, 2930, 31, 36, 37, 44 expressive-constitutive theory: see constitutive theory of language Fabian, J., 1, 146, 221 Fernandez, J., 220, 221, 207 Feuer, L., 7172 Foley, W., 5, 97, 104 folk model, 100 folk psychology, 53, 9394 folk theories, 101 footing, 23, 36, 37, 165 Foucault, M., 147 Frake, C., 99 frame of reference, spatial, 108110, 114 French anthropology, 97 French (language), 37, 127, 186187, 232, 239241, 244246, 249 Friedrich, P., 3, 89, 14, 15, 7576, 108, 207228 functional, 24, 153, 161 functionalism, 5, 10, 169, 218; see also structural-functionalism semiotic functionalism, 2, 7576 Gapun, 178, 186 Geertz, C., 99, 103, 140 gender, 12, 141, 142, 148, 166, 181182, 184, 190, 191197, 199, 200, 201203, 204, 225 grammatical gender, 61, 63, 193195, 202, 203 genesis of color categories, 125 of language, 26 of pidgins and creoles, 10, 135155 German language, 6869, 77, 127, 185, 231, 232, 238 Gipper, H., 73, 74 Gleason, H. A., 116, 129131 globalization, 9, 14, 38, 138 Goodenough, W., 9899, 140 Goodman, M., 137, 139, 152 Gordon, M. and Heath, J., 256 grammar, 8, 5657, 5960, 62, 6365, 68, 77, 8283, 86, 90, 105, 106, 125128, 152153, 159, 160161, 179, 188, 189, 201203, 212, 214, 254 grammar of color words, 124, 125, 126, 131, 134 comparative grammar, 49, 230236 generative grammar, 4, 6, 252 historical grammar, 229, 240, 243, 245 intimate grammar, 13, 14, 15, 45, 203206; see also intimate pragmatics universal grammar, 10, 49, 160 grammatical forms, 168169, 170, 180181, 182184 grammaticalization, 203 Greek language, 29, 3637, 121, 215, 227, 230231, 232, 235236 Grimm, J., 235, 236, 238 Gruppe, O. F., 53 Gumperz, J., 76, 79, 9192, 93, 94, 103105, 113, 161, 166, 170 Guugu Yimithirr language, 7980, 109 Gyarmathi, S., 233234 habitual thought, 6, 55, 64, 73, 80, 85, 88, 91, 115 Haitian Creole, 139, 152, 186 Hamp, E., 229, 243, 246, 250 Hancock, I., 137, 140 Hanks, W., 77, 97, 216 Hanunoo, 115, 120123, 124125, 134 Heath, S. B., 172, 174175 Hegel, G. F., 52, 53 Heidegger, M., 16, 25, 26, 2931, 34, 233 Heller, M., 4, 1011, 156167 Herder, J., 3, 6, 1718, 20, 2223, 2425, 26, 28, 30, 46, 4950, 52, 55, 68, 83, 135 Hering primaries, 118119 hermeneutics, 5, 93 hermeneutics and historical linguistics, 230, 243, 246248, 252, 255256 hermeneutics and translation, 1315 Index Hickerson, N., 122124 Hill, J., 75, 76, 101, 104, 105107, 215216 historical linguistics, 4, 6, 1415, 50, 52, 69, 88, 138, 158, 229256 historiography, 15, 37, 83, 137, 229230, 245, 254 Hobbes, T., 1617, 32, 225 Hoijer, H., 70, 8788 homogeneity, 157, 158, 253 Hopi, 6465, 7274, 84, 85, 87, 93, 115, 127, 222 Humboldt, A. von, 51 Humboldt, W. von, 6, 32, 36, 5053, 55, 56, 57, 65, 67, 68, 77, 83, 93, 104 Humboldtian stream in linguistics, 52, 55, 5657, 67, 68, 237 see also neo-Humboldtian linguistics, 6870, 72, 73 hybridization, 148 Hymes, D., 7576, 82, 83, 9495, 99, 137, 210, 213, 214, 216, 224 iconicity, 215 ideational system, 100101 identity, 9, 29, 39, 144, 145, 147, 148, 156, 164, 170, 203, 233 language and identity, 15, 150, 155, 157, 164167, 186, 255 cultural identity 149 gender identity 13, 183, 195, 205 social identity 11, 12, 169, 183, 188, 192, 201 ideology, 9, 89, 112, 142, 144, 147, 155, 157, 158, 162, 168, 170, 176, 196, 211, 220, 223, 224, 226, 229, 247 language ideology, 147, 156, 163, 166167, 173, 183184, 185187, 188, 195196, 254 Ile de France Creole, 137, 139 imagistic thought, 111 incommensurability, 1415, 3538, 46, 66, 72, 8687, 104 indexical, 12, 15, 45, 76, 168169, 195, 196, 197198, 200, 205, 206, 255 indexical meanings, 168169 indexicality, 11, 105, 181, 182, 195, 215 individual, 89, 15, 50, 51, 62, 82, 90, 92, 102, 105, 113, 137, 139, 140, 142, 144, 150, 154155, 156157, 161, 163, 194, 196, 202, 203204, 207, 218, 219, 220, 225, 227, 252, 256 305 individual langue, 203204 Indo-European, 6, 5051, 52, 57, 61, 65, 93, 108, 119, 231, 233237, 238239, 247, 249250, 252 inequality, 157, 163, 166, 199 institution, social, 14, 37, 55, 140, 143, 163, 193, 195, 198, 201, 205206, 255 intentionality, 149, 178 interaction, (communicative, social), 7, 11, 15, 30, 32, 96, 102, 103, 105, 112114, 138, 146, 147, 153, 157, 160, 163164, 166, 172, 173, 177, 179, 181, 183, 196, 198, 199, 201, 218 interactionist theory of language, 10 interactionist approach to bilingualism, 164165 interlocutor, 11, 30, 3233, 36, 151, 169, 173, 176, 177178 interlocutionary, 194195, 199 interpretation, cultural, 5, 9, 142, 154 interpret(at)ive, 5, 57, 99, 163, 202, 222, 227228, 243244, 251, 256 intersubjectivity, 11, 155, 255 intrinsic rightness, 1822, 23, 28, 33 Inuit people, 57, 60, 173, 176177, 211, 223, 226 Inuktitut (Inuit, Eskimo) language, 56, 5960, 72, 208, 214 Irish language, 78, 217 Jakobson, R., 8, 77, 203, 214, 216, 220 Javanese, 50, 172, 173, 175, 179, 216 Jourdan, C., 115, 47, 82, 135155, 253, 229 Kaluli, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181183 Kant, I., 34, 4950, 65, 108, 220 Kay, P., 8, 35, 71, 99, 115134, 221 Keesing, R., v, 2, 14, 99, 137, 139, 146, 152 Kiche Mayan, 172 kinship terminology, 23, 99100, 104, 249 knowledge, 11, 13, 17, 96, 97, 98, 101102, 105, 112, 140, 146148, 150151, 153, 169, 170, 208, 228, 255 poetics of knowledge, 222 systems of knowledge, 7, 98, 139, 140, 142 cultural knowledge, 98, 99100, 101102, 112, 142, 188, 189 empirical knowledge, 229, 249 linguistic knowledge, 126, 153, 173 306 Index knowledge (cont.) Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. We have noted from our own experience and numerous acquaintances have related similar stories that it is quite possible to recall, in great detail, the content of a conversation one had at lunch, or of a program seen on television, without remembering what language(s) it was in.) Relativity in spatial conception and description. In J. Gumperz and S. C. Levinson (eds. remar_encabo23_82216. Whorf specifies in the same text that this very specific mental image is not to be confused with the universal experience of temporal change, of it always getting later. Here is the English translation of a Hopi sentence that follows on Malotkis page: Then indeed, the following day, quite early in the morning at the hour when people pray to the sun, around that time then he woke up the girl again. See all the time words? Might be girl: the linguistic emergence of gender and sexuality Over the last fifteen years or so anthropologically informed studies of language, gender, and sexuality have formulated a rigorous and robust methodological and theoretical apparatus for understanding the relationship between the semantic, pragmatic, and metapragmatic features of language and the social production, maintenance, and reproduction of normative gender and sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Given the seriously cognitive aspects of ethnopoetics and the profoundly tropological aspects of all knowledge, including that of primitive peoples, it follows that ethnopoetics and ethnoscience pervasively and potentially intersect with each other, are two sides of one reality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. As instantiated in action, in everyday practices, cognition is distributed stretched over, not divided among mind, body, activity and culturally organized settings (which include other actors) (Lave 1988: 1). 1983. . Nationalism and archaeology: on the constructions of nations and the reconstructions of the remote past. Annual Review of Anthropology 27: 223246. 264 References Calame-Griaule, Genevi`eve. Port Townsend: Copper Canyon Press. Boroditsky (2001); Bowerman and Choi (2001); Lucy (1992a); Levinson (1997); Majid et al. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1961. Ribera identified Arabic t araba song (from the trilateral root T RB provoke emotion, excitement, agitation; make music, entertain by singing) as the probable source (Menocal 1982). 1991. In other words, depth and scope is of necessity compromised when it comes down to individual players, fields of knowledge and the sense of issue. London: NLB. Menocal suspects that a disinclination on the part of Hispanists to learn Arabic (1984: 506507), itself a reflection of bias, would leave them less able to detect any Arabic borrowings that might have been passed over by earlier scholars, which in turn, closing the vicious circle, would confirm their initial prejudices. 1995. Constraints on null subjects in Bislama (Vanuatu). Consider the kinship terms from Germanic (represented by Old English and Old High German), and other Indo-European languages, shown in Table 11.3. This multi-layered picture of the semantic dimension underlines afresh how our descriptions stand in a field of other articulations. That was true for many of them. Lincoln, Bruce. What is causing this behaviour and what will be the result? Change is enacted and diffused in the intersubjective context of communication. 19 20 Human agency and language, Cambridge 1985. Nineteen Ways takes a relatively timeless and universally valid classic by the Chinese Buddhist Wang Wei (700771 ad) and critically compares nineteen attempts at translation through two and a half centuries that culminate with the masterpiece by Gary Snyder, to which I return below. Competence and performance: the creativity of tradition in Mexican verbal art. In exploring these diverse fields and alleys it is fruitful to consider what is obvious and recognizably ethnopoetics and also the much greater information that is potentially or partially so. Field, M. 1999. Of course, talk of gods and spirits can be grasped on the analogy of human amity/enmity. Introduction a` la langue francaise suivie dune grammaire. Acculturation and the cultural matrix of creolization. In Dell Hymes (ed. Boas and Bloomfield both tried, in anthropology and linguistics respectively, to mentor Sapirs former students, but the unity and sense of purpose of the group dissipated without Sapir. 1995. Conversational structure and language acquisition: the role of repetition in Tzeltal. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 8(2): 197221. This is true also of other types of social contexts that fostered the development of PCs elsewhere or the restructuring of some languages such as Sango (Samarin, 1982a) and Swahili (Fabian, 1986). 1969. k e v i n t u i t e is Professeur titulaire (full Professor) of Anthropology at the Universite de Montreal. That is to say, this form is not a frozen or idiomatic lexical form. 1996. As we have seen above, workers shared some measure of expectations of their new circumstances, their experience of cultural and spatial dislocation. ), New ways of analyzing sound change, 213231. 1992. ), which is mapped via transformational rules onto the systems of anterior stages of the language. Had he done so, he could not have failed to notice that past and present in English are expressed by inflections of the finite verb stem while future is expressed either by the modal auxiliary will, which precedes the main verb stem and may be separated from it by other auxiliaries and adverbs, or by a raising version of the present participle of the main verb go. Emotion may be a useful translation of desire, but only if emotion is understood in its root sense as an incitement, a movement defined by a motion not towards any specific thing, but out and away from every positioning; i.e. The Hague: Mouton. B. Schieffelin and E. Ochs (eds. It was also discredited by the discovery of significant semantic universals in color, ethnobotanical, and kinship terminologies (Gumperz and Levinson 1996: 3; see 10 11 12 This resurgence of interest spans a number of subdisciplines within anthropology, linguistics, and psychology. Provide specific reasons and examples to support your opinion. At the level of style the differences between languages and their traditions entail categorically and correspondingly different poetics as we move from the extraordinarily allusive language of the Late Tang or Medieval Javanese to styles that minimize such allusiveness, be it the anti-poetic Ncanor Parra or the relative starkness of the Puritan Plain Style (Miller 1967) or of American objectivism or American country lyrics or the problematic cool of some of the recent American minimalism. But An issue about language 45 the point is that in this quite transformed understanding of self and world, we define these as inner, and naturally, we deal with them very differently. Zentella, Ana Celia. Whats new is that now the mind is in control. 1848. Its this nonfocal responsiveness which Im trying to capture with the word sensitivity. So language involves sensitivity to the issue of rightness. 5. ), Style in language, 350 377. Tubingen: M. Niemeyer. The creativesynthetic response, which depends heavily on disregarding the walls between ethnography, linguistics, and the arts of poiesis, has suffered and is suffering more and more from the increasing professionalism of younger anthropologists in their (post)doctoral anxieties, and younger poets trapped within the paradigms and constraints of MFA programs and po biz. Nonetheless, the creativesynthetic response, in poetic prose as 2 The poets I recall at these anthropology readings are A. L. Becker, Stanley Diamond, Dell Hymes, Anthony Lewis, Dan Rose, Jerome Rothenberg, Gary Snyder, Nathaniel Tarn, Dennis Tedlock, and Ed Wilmsen. 1980. Wang Wei), Native America (e.g. It is not a major issue among the ancients. Historical, demographic and economic research by Alleyne (1971); Hancock (1986); Arends (1995); Mintz (1974); Moitt (2001); Price (1983); and Singler (1993b, 1995) for the Atlantic and the Caribbean; by Galenson (1986); Thompson (1975) for English America; by Corris (1973); Saunders (1974); Moore (1985); and Siegel (1987) for the Pacific, shows that they shared many characteristics: the labour force was in most cases taken away from their home place, either forcibly or through a system of harsh indentured labour; the ratio of men to women in the initial period was rather unequal on the Pacific plantations (see Corris 1973), but was more equal in other places as new research by Singler (1995) for Haiti and Martinique; by Arends (1995) for Surinam; by Moitt (2001) for Guadeloupe show; contact with the home country and the home language was maintained by a succession of cohorts of workers, so that part of the culture of home was kept alive for some time; most of the social 2 Hancock cited by Stoller (1985) has suggested that lancado English may have served as a basis for some Caribbean creoles: In the slaving forts the traders attempted to teach the slaves English, and so the English-derived pidgin came into being, a pidgin which was later creolized in the Caribbean (Stoller 1985: 11). London: Routledge. Higonnet, Patrice. Fodor, Jerry A. Similar linguistic realizations of social goals across communities enable communication within our species; different cultural organizations of social goals, however, throw a monkey wrench into cross-cultural exchanges and make the task of acquiring second languages in different communities all the more difficult.4 This culturally organized meansends perspective will be applied to three questions relevant to accounting for grammatical development in early childhood: 1. Whether plantations developed their own particular culture to the extent that Thompson (1975) claims is a point of debate best left to historians. Can cultural systems of belief, knowledge, and social order partially account for young childrens acquisition of particular grammatical constructions? Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. (Menocal 1984: 504) One might question the extent to which the study of the Arabic influence on Hispano-Romance has been tainted by the overtly anti-Semitic tendencies in Spanish history (Menocal 1984: 504505), or whether Romance etymologists have shown bad faith in refusing to discuss, in print at least, the merits of /T RB/ or /D RB/ as an antecedent of Old Provencal trobar. 1995. Cambridge: MIT Press. London: Oxford University Press. This is especially palpable in relation to what I have been calling projective expression, the presentation of our stance to others and to things through body language, style and rhetoric. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. How we think they think: anthropological approaches to cognition, memory, and literacy. The poetics of manhood: context and identity in a Cretan mountain village. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. This follows from the fact of influence. Social Science monograph, no. Bloom, K. 1990. ), Codeswitching: anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives, 215244. 1997. Language form and communicative practices. In John J. Gumperz and Stephen C. Levinson (eds. The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition, vols. Languages are more to us than systems of thought transference. Goodenough, Ward. 1938. Instead, this money should be spent to provide information campaigns and infrastructure to encourage more ordinary people to participate in sports. We are zunachst und zumeist engaged with the world in the ordinary sense, dealing with things in function of our purposes. In both Kaluli (Schieffelin 1990) and Western Samoan communities (Ochs 1988), for example, caregivers rarely clarify childrens utterances because there is a strong dispreference generally towards guessing at the unarticulated psychological states of others. In those communities where infants and small children are generally not recruited as conversational partners, they still become grammatically competent speakershearers, developing linguistic knowledge in a communicative environment full of grammatical complexity and oriented towards competent interlocutors. Copjec, Joan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Languages as socially created, established, acknowledged, and controlled forms of knowledge would be surface elaborations mere variations of deep designs innate to our species. He therefore predicted that in non-linguistic tasks (e.g. For more interdisciplinary perspectives on language and thought, see, for example, Levinson 1995, Carruthers and Boucher 1998. John Haviland and Stephen C. Levinson, Linguistics 32 (4/5): 857885. 18331836. This is what makes it credible. Language, Culture, and Society book. Language, culture and cognition. For more help with your IELTS task 2 preparation, take a look at our tutorials to help prepare for the IELTS exam. (1974); Essock (1977); Grether (1939); Matsuzawa (1985); Sandell et al. Oxford: Blackwell. 1995. For the philosophical basis, see Kant 1991. First words, for example, may reflect and construct cultural expectations concerning what children want to communicate. Provide specific reasons and examples to support your position. The contemplative grasp is a deficient mode, in the sense that it requires a certain retreat relative to our normal engaged stance. Such polemics Interpreting language variation and change 237 reinforced standards for the evaluation of explanations and the use of evidence, and also set the tone for the debating styles of future generations. Nonetheless, his work has drawn enormous attention, and criticism, since his death. ), Spatial orientation: theory, research and application, 225282. Another basis for rejection arose in the anti-scientistic trend toward interpretive approaches to the study of culture (e.g. Language, our primary tool of thought and perception, is at the heart of who we are as individuals. Something has meaning for us in this sense when it has a certain significance or relevance in our lives. Langue de personne, langue de tout le monde: le Pijin a` Honiara (Iles Salomon). Etudes Creoles 11(2): 128147. 3.4 Language, Society, and Culture Learning Objectives Discuss some of the social norms that guide conversational interaction. The question of narrative in contemporary historical theory. History and Theory 23(1): 133. Pierrehumbert, Janet and Paul Gross. (Trabant 1986: 206; my translation) Meanwhile, however, things were shifting again. This is in part because the two live in different social, cultural, and material worlds; but it is also because the categories of their very different languages point their speakers toward different aspects of experience (an extension of Boas on grammatical categories) and make it easy to organize experience in some ways rather than others. Quite the contrary. 1996. Language and thought: interdisciplinary themes. The more far-fetched of these include Greenbergs (1987) Amerind, and even Bengtson and Ruhlens (1994) ProtoWorld. It seems at first glance paradoxical that the hypothesized sound correspondences linking the far-flung members of these mega-families are characteristically much simpler than those detected in Indo-European; one never encounters anything comparable to the complex, but regular, sound correspondences that link Armenian erku two to Latin duo.
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